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The general safety measures taken during civil engineering construction.

The following safety measures are taken during civil engineering construction. (i) Suitable scaffolds should be provided for workmen. (ii) When ladder are used, it should be provided with foot holds and hand holds and inclination of one is to four (1 horizontal : 4 vertical) be provided. (iii) The scaffolding should be properly supported and shall have a guard rail property attached to it. (iv) Every opening in floor of a building should be provided with suitable means to prevent the fall of persons or materials. (v) Fencing and lights shall be provided to protect the public from accident. (vi) The excavated material shall not be placed within 1.5m of the edge of the trench or half the depth whichever is more to avoid collapse of sides due to surcharge. (vii) No undermining or undercutting shall be allowed. (viii) All roads and open areas adjacent to any side where demolition is to be carried out, must be closed or suitably protected. (ix) No electrical cable etc. shall remain electric...
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Laws of variable proportion or the law of diminishing return.

 



LAW OF DIMINISHING RETURN:

ASSUMPTION:

This is the most fundamental law of economics based on the actual experience of farmers. A Scottish famer is said to have been first to state this law. This has been explained by Marshall in following words:

"An increase in the capital and labour applied in the cultivation of land causes in general a less than proportionate increase in the amount of produce raised unless it happens to coincide with improvement in the art of agriculture." 

The law is generally applied in the field of agriculture. This law states that every increase in the doses of capital labour and other inputs lead to increase in total output and this increase is less than proportionate increase compared to inputs. The law of diminishing returns operate on account of the following assumptions.

(i) There is fixed factors of production and the variable factors alongwith fixed factor or production do not receive full attention and co-operation. As a result of this the productivity of the variable factors goes on diminishing.

(ii) Agricultural outputs are exposed to vagaries of climate and weather conditions. Due to this reason the average productivity has a tendency to fall.

(iii) Division of labour and specialisation which help a lot in reducing the cost of production is not applied in agriculture.

(iv) Agriculture field are spread over a large areas, making the task of supervision difficult. Due to lack of supervision the productivity falls thus setting the law of diminishing return into motion.

(v) The fertility of soil is exhausted after sometime. This leads to operation of the law of diminishing returns to agriculture.

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