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The general safety measures taken during civil engineering construction.

The following safety measures are taken during civil engineering construction. (i) Suitable scaffolds should be provided for workmen. (ii) When ladder are used, it should be provided with foot holds and hand holds and inclination of one is to four (1 horizontal : 4 vertical) be provided. (iii) The scaffolding should be properly supported and shall have a guard rail property attached to it. (iv) Every opening in floor of a building should be provided with suitable means to prevent the fall of persons or materials. (v) Fencing and lights shall be provided to protect the public from accident. (vi) The excavated material shall not be placed within 1.5m of the edge of the trench or half the depth whichever is more to avoid collapse of sides due to surcharge. (vii) No undermining or undercutting shall be allowed. (viii) All roads and open areas adjacent to any side where demolition is to be carried out, must be closed or suitably protected. (ix) No electrical cable etc. shall remain electric...
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Modulus of elasticity & Fatigue Limit

Question 1 (b): Explain what is meant by modulus of elasticity and the fatigue limit.                                                                                      (6 marks) (Summer 2005)

Modulus of Elasticity: Hooke's law states that when a naterial is loaded within elastic limit, the stress is directly proportional to strain.

E is the constant of proportionality known as modulus of elasticity and expressed in kN/sqmm (GPa).
E for steel is 200 GPa and that for timber is 10 GPa.

Fatigue Limit: When any material is subjected to repeated stresses, it fails at stresses below the yield point stresses. Such type of failure of a material is called fatigue. The stress is plotted against the number of cycles required to produce failure. 


A little consideration will show that if the stress is kept below a certain value as shown by a dotted line in figure, the material will not fail whatever be the number of cycles. This stress represented by the dotted lines is called fatigue limit and is also known as endurance limit. It is the maximum value of the completely reversed bending stress which a polished standard specimen can withstand without failure, for infinite number of cycles, usually 100000000 cycles. 


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